Mobiles wallpapers

Wallpaper, using the printmaking technique of woodcut, gained popularity in Renaissance Europe amongst the emerging gentry. The elite of society were accustomed to hanging large tapestries on the walls of their homes, a tradition from the Middle Ages. These tapestries added color to the room as well as providing an insulating layer between the stone walls and the room, thus retaining heat in the room. However, tapestries were extremely expensive and so only the very rich could afford them. Less well-off members of the elite, unable to buy tapestries due either to prices or wars preventing international trade, turned to wallpaper to brighten up their rooms.

Early wallpaper featured scenes similar to those depicted on tapestries, and large sheets of the paper were sometimes hung loose on the walls, in the style of tapestries, and sometimes pasted as today. Prints were very often pasted to walls, instead of being framed and hung, and the largest sizes of prints, which came in several sheets, were probably mainly intended to be pasted to walls. Some important artists made such pieces, notably Albrecht Dürer, who worked on both large picture prints and also ornament prints intended for wall-hanging. The largest picture print was The Triumphal Arch commissioned by the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and completed in 1515. This measured a colossal 3.57 by 2.95 metres, made up of 192 sheets, and was printed in a first edition of 700 copies, intended to be hung in palaces and, in particular, town halls, after hand-coloring.

Very few samples of the earliest repeating pattern wallpapers survive, but there are a large number of old master prints, often in engraving of repeating or repeatable decorative patterns. These are called ornament prints and were intended as models for wallpaper makers, among other uses.

England and France were leaders in European wallpaper manufacturing. Among the earliest known samples is one found on a wall from England and is printed on the back of a London proclamation of 1509. It became very popular in England following Henry VIII's excommunication from the Catholic Church - English aristocrats had always imported tapestries from Flanders and Arras, but Henry VIII's split with the Catholic Church had resulted in a fall in trade with Europe. Without any tapestry manufacturers in England, English gentry and aristocracy alike turned to wallpaper.

During the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell, the manufacture of wallpaper, seen as a frivolous item by the Puritan government, was halted. Following the Restoration of Charles II, wealthy people across England began demanding wallpaper again - Cromwell's regime had imposed a boring culture on people, and following his death, wealthy people began purchasing comfortable domestic items which had been banned under the Puritan state. By the mid-eighteenth century, Britain was the leading wallpaper manufacturer in Europe, exporting vast quantities to Europe in addition to selling on the middle-class British market. However this trade was seriously disrupted in 1755 by the Seven Years War and later the Napoleonic Wars, and by a heavy level of duty on imports to France.

In 1748 the English ambassador to Paris decorated his salon with blue flock wallpaper, which then became very fashionable there. In the 1760s the French manufacturer Jean-Baptiste Réveillon hired designers working in silk and tapestry to produce some of the most subtle and luxurious wallpaper ever made. His sky blue wallpaper with fleurs-de-lys was used in 1783 on the first balloons by the Montgolfier brothers. The landscape painter Jean-Baptiste Pillement discovered in 1763 a method to use fast colours. Towards the end of the century the fashion for scenic wallpaper revived in both England and France, leading to some enormous panoramas, like the 1804 20 strip wide Panorama, designed by the artist Jean-Gabriel Charvetfor the french Manufacture Dufour et Cie showing the Voyages of Captain Cook. One of this famous so called Papier paints wallpaper is still in situ in Ham House, Peabody Massachusetts. Beside Dufour et Cie other French manufacturers of panoramic scenic and trompe l'œil wallpapers, Zuber et Cie and Arthur et Robert exported their product across Europe and North America. Zuber et Cie's c. 1834 design Views of North America is installed in the Diplomatic Reception Room of the White House. Like most of eighteenth century wallpapers, this was designed to be hung above a dado.

Hand-blocking wallpapers like these are manufactured by using a centuries old method in which wallpaper is hand-printed from hand-carved blocks on paper. Hand-blocked wallpaper depicted scenes include, panoramic views of antique architecture, exotic landscapes and pastoral subjects, as well as repeating patterns of stylized flowers, people and animals. The 1797 founded French company Zuber et Cie in Rixheim, France is the only company in the world which still manufactures woodblocked wallpaper.

In 1785 Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf had invented the first machine for printing coloured tints on sheets of wallpaper. In 1799 Louis-Nicolas Robert patented a machine to produce continuous lengths of paper, the forerunner of the Fourdrinier machine. This ability to produce continuous lengths of wallpaper now offered the prospect of novel designs and nice tints being widely displayed in drawing rooms across Europe.[1]

During the Napoleonic Wars , trade between Europe and Britain evaporated, resulting in the gradual decline of the wallpaper industry in Britain. However, the end of the war saw a massive demand in Europe for British goods which had been inaccessible during the wars, including cheap, colourful wallpaper. The development of steam-powered printing presses in Britain in 1813 allowed manufacturers to mass-produce wallpaper, reducing its price and so making it affordable to working-class people. Wallpaper enjoyed a huge boom in popularity in the nineteenth century, seen as a cheap and very effective way of brightening up cramped and dark rooms in working-class areas. By the early twentieth century, wallpaper had established itself as one of the most popular household items across the Western world. During the late 1980s though, wallpaper began to fall out of fashion in lieu of Faux Painting which can be more easily removed by simply re-painting.

[edit] Types and sizes
Modern wallcoverings are diverse. Two of the most common factory trimmed sizes of wallpaper are referred to as "American" and "European" rolled goods. American rolled good are 27 inches by 27 feet in length. European rolled goods are 21.5 inches wide by 33 feet in length. Approx. 60 square feet. Most wallpaper borders are sold by linear foot and with a wide range of widths therefore square footage is not applicable. Although some may require trimming.

The most common wall covering for residential use and generally the most economical is prepasted vinyl coated paper, commonly called "strippable" which can be misleading. Clothed backed vinyl is fairly common and durable. Lighter vinyls are easier to handle and hang. Paper backed vinyls are generally more expensive, significantly more difficult to hang, and can be found wider untrimmed widths. Foil wallpaper generally has paper backing and can (exceptionally) be up to 36 inches wide, and be very difficult to handle and hang. Textile wallpapers include silks, linens, grass cloths, strings, rattan, and actual impressed leaves. There are acoustical wall carpets to reduce sound. Customized wallcoverings are available at high prices and most often have minimum roll orders.

Solid vinyl with a cloth backing is most common commercial wallcovering and comes from the factory as untrimmed at 54 inches approximately, to be overlapped and double cut by the installer. This same type can be pre-trimmed at the factory to 27 inches approx.

[edit] Use
Like paint, wallpaper requires proper surface preparation before application. Additionally, wallpaper is not suitable for all areas. For example, bathroom wallpaper may deteriorate rapidly due to excessive steam. Proper preparation includes the repair of any defects in the drywall or plaster and the removal of loose material or old adhesives. Accurate room measurements (length, width, and height) along with number of window and door openings is essential for ordering wallpaper. Large drops, or repeats, in a pattern can be cut and hung more economically by working from alternating rolls of paper. Paper is sold (with very few exceptions) in double rolls.

[edit] Wallpaper adhesives
Most wallpaper adhesive are starch or methylcellulose based.

[edit] Removal
[edit] Water
The simplest removal option is to brush the paper with water. Water soaks through the paper and saturates the glue, allowing the paper to be peeled off.

This does not work well with nonpeelable vinyls, as vinyl is not porous. Nevertheless it is still effective on many modern papers.

[edit] Chemical wallpaper stripper
Chemical wallpaper stripper can be purchased at most paint or home improvement stores. It is mixed with warm water or a mixture of warm water and vinegar, then sprayed onto wall surfaces. Several applications may be required to saturate the existing wallpaper. Perforation can aid in the absorption of the mixture and lead to faster removal. After the mixture has dissolved the wallpaper paste, the wallpaper can be removed easily by pulling at the edges and with the aid of a putty or drywall knife.

[edit] Steam
Another method of removal is to apply steam to wallpaper in order to dissolve the wallpaper paste. A wallpaper steamer consists of a reservoir of water, an electric heating element, and a hose to direct the steam at the wallpaper. The steam dissolves the wallpaper paste, allowing the wallpaper to be peeled off. However, care must be taken to prevent damage to the drywall underneath. Sometimes steaming can lead to the crumbling of underlying drywall or plaster, leaving an uneven surface to be repaired.

SEXY GIRLS ON MOBILES

Playboy magazine began supplementing its monthly edition in the mid-1960s with irregularly-published special editions devoted to, for example, its cartoons or the Playboy Clubs. The first edition, The Best from Playboy in 1964, was nothing like the present-day specials. Its 120 pages contained a sixteen-page Jayne Mansfield pictorial, but was otherwise filled with articles, including the celebrated 1962 interview with Miles Davis. A 1972 Little Annie Fanny special is highly sought after by Harvey Kurtzman collectors.

In the 1970s, perhaps in conjunction with the appearance of Oui, the special editions would feature somewhat more explicit photography or situations than Playboy itself would run at the time. One release, 1976's Noelle, was quite notorious in its day for its racy content.

In 1984, Playboy published the first volume of its flagship Special Edition, Book of Lingerie, which featured 110 pages of photos of Playmates from the last decade (reprints and outtakes, with no specially-commissioned photos). The magazine sold extremely well, and a second edition, in 1987, proved the market was there for the Newsstand Specials, as they were formally called at this time, to begin a regular, formal sales cycle. Each Newsstand Special would have a two-month shelf life, with two titles published each month.

The greatly increased demand for new photos to fill the 24 editions published annually -- reprints from the early 1970s having little erotic value to readers twenty years later -- required Playboy to look further than their own archives to fill the page count. Newsstand Specials of the late 1980s and early 1990s would often feature previously unpublished outtakes from Playmate pictorials, but also a number of "one-shot" models, possibly posing under a pseudonym or unnamed entirely, bought in bulk from glamour photographers. Sometimes these would resurface in other magazines; outtakes from a 1992-93 shoot with a model named Simone Burkhard which first appeared in Playboy's Girls of Summer '93 were published in Perfect 10 some five years later.

By the mid-1990s, Playboy had formalized its model process to help give the Newsstand Specials their own unique identity. Commissioning regular shoots with Playmates from the last two or three years provided an ongoing source of new photos which increased the models' popularity and won them new fans, but the editions also found new talent popular enough to warrant multiple appearances. Models such as Alley Baggett, Patricia Ford and Sung Hi Lee rarely or never appeared in the monthly Playboy, but were featured in the Special Editions dozens of times.

By the end of the 1990s, the label Newsstand Special had been phased out in favor of Special Edition, and a host of regular publications had joined Book of Lingerie (renamed simply Lingerie) on the shelves. One edition each of Playmate Review, Nude Playmates and Girlfriends, among others, are published annually. College Girls is published three times a year.

By 2005, the Playmates had actually found themselves completely squeezed out of Lingerie. Its 100th edition was the first to feature no Playmates at all; Playboy has such a bank of available, popular models that it no longer needs the Playmates to sell some of its Special Editions.

Since the October/November 2008 issue of Lingerie, Playboy Special Edition switched its bookbinding process from perfect binding (flat format) to saddle-stitching (stapled format), thereby definitely abandoning the moniker flats[2]. Following negative feedback from readers, perfect binding was restored as from the March/April 2009 issues of Hot Housewives and Sexy Girls Next Door[3].

[edit] List of Special Editions
There are several long-running series of Special Editions, as well as short series and one-offs.

[edit] Book of Lingerie/Lingerie
Playboy Special Editions' most popular series is Lingerie (formerly known as Book of Lingerie), which is published on a bimonthly basis. The first issue was released as Book of Lingerie in 1984. It became bimonthly as from November 1988 and had its name changed to Lingerie as from September 2002.

[edit] Book of Lingerie
Book of Lingerie 1984 (Covergirls: Joan Bennett & Cherie Estee)
Book of Lingerie 1987 (Covergirl: Shannon Tweed)
Book of Lingerie 1988 (Covergirl: Brandi Brandt)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1988 (Covergirl: Cher Butler)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1989 (Covergirl: Veronica Gamba)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1989 (Covergirl: Cynthia Kaye)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1989 (Covergirl: Teri Weigel)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1989 (Covergirl: Suzi Schott)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1989 (Covergirl: Eloise Broady)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1989 (Covergirl: Theresa Ann Presley)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1990 (Covergirl: Christina Herbert)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1990 (Covergirl: Tally Chanel)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1990 (Covergirl: Nia Breeon)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1990 (Covergirl: Lori Williamson)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1990 (Covergirl: Laurie Carr)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1990 (Covergirl: Erica Ringstrom)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1991 (Covergirl: Alicia Sanchez)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1991 (Covergirl: Kristine Rose)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1991 (Covergirl: Laura Richmond)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1991 (Covergirl: Michele Smith)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1991 (Covergirl: Lorissa McComas)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1991 (Covergirl: Michelle O'Malley)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1992 (Covergirl: Tera Tabrizi)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1992 (Covergirl: Cindy Margolis)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1992 (Covergirl: Tamika Sherman)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1992 (Covergirl: Heidi Staley)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1992 (Covergirl: Monique Biffignani)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1992 (Covergirl: Christine Cote)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1993 (Covergirls: Jody Hoskins & Kerri Hoskins)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1993 (Covergirl: Margie Murphey)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1993 (Covergirl: Patricia Ford)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1993 (Covergirl: Neriah Davis)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1993 (Covergirl: Samantha Dorman)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1993 (Covergirl: Cheryl Bachman)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1994 (Covergirl: Park Morgan)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1994 (Covergirl: Sue Ethridge)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1994 (Covergirl: Deborah Driggs)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1994 (Covergirl: Suzi Simpson)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1994 (Covergirl: Kimberly Donley)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1994 (Covergirl: Leeann Tweeden)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1995 (Covergirl: Tonya Offer)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1995 (Covergirl: Lisa Boyle)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1995 (Covergirl: Rachel Jeán Marteen)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1995 (Covergirl: Jenny McCarthy)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1995 (Covergirl: Lexie)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1995 (Covergirl: Chloe Jones)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1996 (Covergirls: Tonya Offer, Petra Verkaik, Barbara Moore, Kerri Kendall, Patricia Ford & Lisa Boyle)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1996 (Covergirl: Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1996 (Covergirl: 1996 Reader's Choice Supermodel Patricia Ford)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1996 (50th issue: cover consists of 25 past covers)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1996 (Covergirl: Sung Hi Lee)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1996 (Covergirl: Claire Louise Hickory)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1997 (Covergirls: Camille Donatacci, Shae Marks, Patricia Ford, Chrissy Ranay, Alley Baggett & Lisa Boyle)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1997 (Covergirl: Lisa Boyle)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1997 (Covergirl: Heather Kozar)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1997 (Covergirl: 1997 Model of the Year Petra Verkaik)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1997 (Covergirl: Shauna Sand)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1997 (Covergirl: Holly Witt)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1998 (Covergirls: Priscilla Taylor, Karin Taylor, Anna Rose Chang, Maria Checa, Petra Verkaik & Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1998 (Covergirl: Bethany Lorraine)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1998 (Covergirl: Stefanie Hastings)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1998 (Covergirl: 1998 Model of the Year Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1998 (Covergirl: Christi Taylor)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1998 (Covergirl: Lynn Thomas)
Book of Lingerie January/February 1999 (Covergirls: Karin Taylor, Victoria Zdrok, Alesha Oreskovich, Brooke Richards, Lisa Marie Scott & Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie March/April 1999 (Covergirl: Katalina Verdin)
Book of Lingerie May/June 1999 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Book of Lingerie July/August 1999 (Covergirl: 1999 Model of the Year Christi Taylor)
Book of Lingerie September/October 1999 (Covergirl: Tiffany Taylor)
Book of Lingerie November/December 1999 (Covergirl: Angela Little)
Book of Lingerie January/February 2000 (Covergirls: Katalina Verdin, Amy Miller, Joy Behrman, Julia Brox, Kelly Monaco & Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie March/April 2000 (Covergirl: Samantha Speer)
Book of Lingerie May/June 2000 (Covergirl: Natasha Podkuyko)
Book of Lingerie July/August 2000 (Covergirl: 2000 Model of the Year Alley Baggett)
Book of Lingerie September/October 2000 (Covergirl: Brooke Richards)
Book of Lingerie November/December 2000 (Covergirl: Amy Russo)
Book of Lingerie January/February 2001 (Covergirls: Katalina Verdin, Alley Baggett, Joy Behrman, Sydney Moon, Sung Hi Lee & Laurie Wallace)
Book of Lingerie March/April 2001 (Covergirl: Melissa Arnold)
Book of Lingerie May/June 2001 (Covergirl: Quinn Koloski)
Book of Lingerie July/August 2001 (Covergirl: 2001 Model of the Year Heather Christensen)
Book of Lingerie September/October 2001 (Covergirl: Stephanie Wood)
Book of Lingerie November/December 2001 (Covergirl: Merritt Cabal)
Book of Lingerie January/February 2002 (Covergirls: Amy Miller, Madison Marie, Joy Behrman, Heather Christensen & Sandra Westgate)
Book of Lingerie March/April 2002 (Covergirl: Angel Anderson)
Book of Lingerie May/June 2002 (Covergirl: Nancy Erminia)
Book of Lingerie July/August 2002 (Covergirl: 2002 Model of the Year Amy Miller)
[edit] Lingerie
Lingerie September/October 2002 (Covergirl: Nicole Lenz)
Lingerie November/December 2002 (Covergirl: Rochelle Loewen)
Lingerie January/February 2003 (Covergirl: Nancy Erminia, LaTasha Marzolla, Katie Cleary, Candice Michelle & Leslie Elizabeth)
Lingerie March/April 2003 (Covergirl: Krystal Tamburino)
Lingerie May/June 2003 (Covergirl: Cynthia Arroyo)
Lingerie July/August 2003 (Covergirl: 2003 Model of the Year Kitana Baker)
Lingerie September/October 2003 (Covergirl: LaTasha Marzolla)
Lingerie November/December 2003 (Covergirl: Bianca Beauchamp)
Lingerie January/February 2004 (Covergirls: Kitana Baker, Jennifer Walcott & Kimberly Nicole Cameron)
Lingerie March/April 2004 (Covergirl: Tesha Mullen)
Lingerie May/June 2004 (Covergirl: Mandy Ashford)
Lingerie July/August 2004 (Covergirl: 2004 Model of the Year LaTasha Marzolla)
Lingerie September/October 2004 (Covergirl: Lisa Wells)
Lingerie December/January 2005 (Covergirls: Alley Baggett, Jaime Hammer & Courtney Culkin) – 100th Book of Lingerie
Lingerie February/March 2005 (Covergirl: Alexia Roy)
Lingerie April/May 2005 (Covergirl: Jenn Lynn)
Lingerie June/July 2005 (Covergirl: Michele Rogers)
Lingerie August/September 2005 (Covergirl: 2005 Model of the Year Erica Campbell)
Lingerie October/November 2005 (Covergirl: Angela Inkova)
Lingerie December/January 2006 (Covergirls : Mandy Lynn, Brandie Moses & Erica Campbell)
Lingerie February/March 2006 (Covergirl: Jesse Jane)
Lingerie April/May 2006 (Covergirl: Breann McGregor)
Lingerie June/July 2006 (Covergirl: Triana Iglesias)
Lingerie August/September 2006 (Covergirl: 2006 Model of the Year Louise Glover)
Lingerie October/November 2006 (Covergirl: Heather René)
Lingerie December/January 2007 (Covergirl: Amy Lynn Grover)
Lingerie February/March 2007 (Covergirl: Cristal Houston)
Lingerie April/May 2007 (Covergirl: Shannon Gilbert)
Lingerie June/July 2007 (Covergirl: Tiffany Taylor)
Lingerie August/September 2007 (Covergirl: 2007 Model of the Year Breann McGregor)
Lingerie October/November 2007 (Covergirl: Pernilla Lundberg)
Lingerie December/January 2008 (Covergirl: Shannon Tate)
Lingerie February/March 2008 (Covergirl: Jennifer Walcott)
Lingerie April/May 2008 (Covergirl: Ashley Alexa)
Lingerie June/July 2008 (Covergirl: Tindra Mantel)
Lingerie August/September 2008 (Covergirl: 2008 Model of the Year Jillian Beyor)
Lingerie October/November 2008 (Covergirl: Iga Wyrwal)
Lingerie December/January 2009 (Covergirl: Nancy Patton)
Lingerie February/March 2009 (Covergirl: Brittany Retkofsky)
Lingerie April/May 2009 (Covergirl: Ashlyn Letizzia)
Lingerie June/July 2009 (Covergirl: Maria Molkanova)
Lingerie August/September 2009 (Covergirl: 2009 Model of the Year Destiny White)
Lingerie October/November 2009 (Covergirl: Jessica Robinson)
Lingerie December/January 2010 (Covergirl: Nadia Marcella)
[edit] Playmates

First Playmate Review issue in 1985 featuring Playmate of the Year Karen Velez[edit] Calendar Playmates
Calendar Playmates 1992 (Covergirl: Pamela Anderson)
[edit] Celebrating Centerfolds
Celebrating Centerfolds – Volume 1 1998 (Covergirls: Julie Lynn Cialini & Victoria Fuller)
Celebrating Centerfolds – Volume 2 1999 (Covergirl: Karen McDougal)
Celebrating Centerfolds – Volume 3 1999 (Covergirl: Layla Roberts)
Celebrating Centerfolds – Volume 4 2000 (Covergirl: Echo Johnson)
Celebrating Centerfolds – Volume 5 2000 (Covergirl: Angela Little)
[edit] Centerfolds of the Century
Centerfolds of the Century May 2000 (Covergirls: Victoria Silvstedt & Stacy Sanches)
[edit] Classic Centerfolds
Classic Centerfolds 1998 (Covergirl: Rhonda Adams)
[edit] Facts & Figures
Facts & Figures 1997 (Covergirl: Becky Delos Santos)
[edit] International Playmates
International Playmates 1992 (Covergirl: Kata Karkkainen)
International Playmates 1993 (Covergirl: Saskia Linssen)
[edit] Nude Playmates
Nude Playmates 1997 (Covergirls: Priscilla Taylor & Angel Boris)
Nude Playmates 1998 (Covergirls: Alesha Oreskovich & Victoria Zdrok)
Nude Playmates 2001 (Covergirls: Kristi Cline & Tishara Cousino)
Nude Playmates 2002 (Covergirls: Suzanne Stokes & Shannon Stewart)
Nude Playmates 2003 (Covergirls: Buffy Tyler & Jennifer Walcott)
Nude Playmates 2004 (Covergirl: Tailor James)
Nude Playmates 2005 (Covergirl: Krista Kelly)
Nude Playmates 2006 (Covergirl: Jennifer Walcott)
Nude Playmates 2007 (Covergirl: Tamara Witmer)
Nude Playmates March/April 2008 (Covergirl: Tailor James)
Nude Playmates January/February 2009 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
Nude Playmates January/February 2010 (Covergirl: Tyran Richard)
[edit] Playmate Review
As its name implies, this series features only the Playmates of the month who appeared in the 12 Playboy magazine issues during the past year. The cover of the issue depicts the playmate who is the current Playmate of the year.

Playmate Review 1985 (Covergirl: Karen Velez)
Playmate Review 1986 (Covergirl: Kathy Shower)
Playmate Review 1987 (Covergirl: Donna Edmondson)
Playmate Review 1988 (Covergirl: India Allen)
Playmate Review 1989 (Covergirl: Kimberley Conrad)
Playmate Review 1990 (Covergirl: Renee Tenison)
Playmate Review 1991 (Covergirl: Lisa Matthews)
Playmate Review 1992 (Covergirl: Corinna Harney)
Playmate Review 1993 (Covergirl: Anna Nicole Smith)
Playmate Review 1994 (Covergirl: Jenny McCarthy)
Playmate Review 1995 (Covergirl: Julie Lynn Cialini)
Playmate Review 1996 (Covergirl: Stacy Sanches)
Playmate Review 1997 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Playmate Review 1998 (Covergirl: Karen McDougal)
Playmate Review 1999 (Covergirl: Heather Kozar)
Playmate Review 2000 (Covergirl: Jodi Ann Paterson)
Playmate Review 2001 (Covergirl: Brande Roderick)
Playmate Review 2002 (Covergirl: Dalene Kurtis)
Playmate Review 2003 (Covergirl: Christina Santiago)
Playmate Review 2004 (Covergirl: Carmella DeCesare)
Playmate Review 2005 (Covergirl: Tiffany Fallon)
Playmate Review 2006 (Covergirl: Kara Monaco)
Playmate Review 2007 (Covergirl: Sara Jean Underwood)
Playmate Review 2008 (Covergirl: Jayde Nicole)
Playmate Review 2009 (Covergirl: Ida Ljungqvist)
[edit] Playmate Tests
Playmate Tests 1998 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Playmate Tests 1999 (Covergirl: Alesha Oreskovich)
[edit] Playmates
Playmates - The First 15 Years 1983
Playmates - The Second 15 Years 1984
[edit] Playmates at Play
Playmates at Play 1994 (Covergirl: Leisa Sheridan)
[edit] Playmates in Bed
Playmates in Bed January 1995 (Covergirl: Alesha Oreskovich)
Playmates in Bed November 1997 (Covergirl: Echo Johnson)
Playmates in Bed February 1999 (Covergirl: Carrie Stevens)
Playmates in Bed October 2000 (Covergirl: Tishara Cousino)
Playmates in Bed December 2001 (Covergirl: Buffy Tyler)
Playmates in Bed December 2002 (Covergirl: Jennifer Walcott)
Playmates in Bed November 2003 (Covergirl: Irina Voronina)
Playmates in Bed November 2004 (Covergirl: Divini Rae)
Playmates in Bed July 2005 (Covergirl: Hiromi Oshima)
Playmates in Bed January/February 2007 (Covergirl: Tiffany Fallon)
Playmates in Bed January/February 2008 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
[edit] Playmates in Paradise
Playmates in Paradise 1994 (Covergirl: Kerri Kendall)
[edit] Playmates in the Spotlight
Playmates in the Spotlight 1989 (Covergirl: Cynthia Brimhall)
[edit] Playmates of the Year
Playmates of the Year 1986 (Covergirls: Dorothy Stratten, Marianne Gravatte & Patti McGuire)
Playmates of the Year 2000 (Covergirls: Anna Nicole Smith & Jenny McCarthy)
[edit] Pocket Playmates
Pocket Playmates No. 1 May 1995
Pocket Playmates No. 2 November 1995
Pocket Playmates No. 3 March 1996
Pocket Playmates No. 4 May 1996
Pocket Playmates No. 5 August 1996
Pocket Playmates No. 6 February 1997
[edit] Sexiest Playmates
Sexiest Playmates 2001 (Covergirls: Heather Kozar & Julie McCullough)
[edit] Twenty-One Playmates
Twenty-One Playmates Vol.1 1996
Twenty-One Playmates Vol.2 1997
[edit] Video Playmates
Video Playmates 1993 (Covergirl: Corinna Harney)
[edit] Wet & Wild Playmates
Wet & Wild Playmates 1994 (Covergirl: Echo Johnson)
[edit] College Girls

A Playboy College Girls issue featuring girls from the Big 12 Conference in 1997The models featured in this series are usually selected from the student population of American colleges and universities.

At first, the magazine was published only in the fall to roughly coincide with the beginning of the school year. Each year, the magazine includes a feature on students of an athletic conference, usually from a BCS conference. For instance, the 1997 issue (pictured) featured the Big 12 but also students from other schools.

The 2006 issue caused some controversy at Baylor University, which has a religious affiliation. Baylor declared that associating with the magazine would be a violation of the school's code of conduct.[4]

[edit] College Girls
College Girls 1983 (Covergirl unknown)
College Girls 1988 (Covergirl: Kathleen Emerson)
College Girls 1991 (Covergirl: Wendy Christine)
College Girls 1993 (Covergirl: Rhonda Fagula)
College Girls 1995 (Covergirls: Michelle Meyer, Sarah Oja & Heather Wynter)
College Girls April/May 1996 (Covergirl: Vanessa Taylor)
College Girls 1997 (Covergirl: Cindy Roubal)
College Girls 1998 (Covergirl: April Morgan)
College Girls 1999 (Covergirl: Sheila Bell)
College Girls Spring 2000 (Covergirl: Tina Crowder)
College Girls Fall 2000 (Covergirl: Harmony Guffey)
College Girls Spring 2001 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
Sexy College Girls 2001 (Covergirl: Lauren Shaw)
College Girls Fall 2001 (Covergirl: Kitana Baker)
College Girls Spring 2002 (Covergirl: Katherine Hadorn)
Sexy College Girls 2002 (Covergirl: Jo Kerry)
College Girls Fall 2002 (Covergirl: Kimberly Nicole Cameron)
College Girls Wet & Wild 2002 (Covergirl: Maggie Heinen)
College Girls Spring 2003 (Covergirl: Lauren LeBlanc)
Nude College Girls 2003 (Covergirl: Nicole Woodruff)
College Girls Fall 2003 (Covergirl: Erin Nicole)
College Girls Spring 2004 (Covergirl: Jaime Hammer)
Nude College Girls 2004 (Covergirl: Lindsay Williams)
College Girls Fall 2004 (Covergirl: Tammy Plante)
College Girls March/April 2005 (Covergirl: Davin Lexen)
College Girls May/June 2005 (Covergirl: Breann McGregor)
College Girls Nude July/August 2005 (Covergirls: Caitlin Jenks & Cassandra Jenks)
College Girls September/October 2005 (Covergirl: Monica Leigh)
College Girls November/December 2005 (Covergirl: Kate Brenner)
College Girls January/February 2006 (Covergirl: Victoria Thornton)
College Girls July/August 2006 (Covergirl: Dana Kelly)
College Girls January/February 2007 (Covergirl: Taryn Terrell)
College Girls March/April 2007 (Covergirl: Sarah Porchetta)
College Girls July/August 2007 (Covergirl: Diane DeLuna)
College Girls January/February 2008 (Covergirl: Heather Nichole)
College Girls July/August 2008 (Covergirl: September Carrino)
College Girls January/February 2009 (Covergirls: Cassie Keller & Chloe Mayers)
College Girls July/August 2009 (Covergirl: Brittany Taylor)
College Girls January/February 2010 (Covergirl: Jennifer Lynn)
[edit] Voluptuous Vixens/Vixens

A Vixens issue featuring Kimberly WilliamsThe Voluptuous Vixens / Vixens series features models with prodigious breasts.

[edit] Voluptuous Vixens
Voluptuous Vixens January 1998 (Covergirl: Tawny Peaks)
Voluptuous Vixens II November 1998 (Covergirl: Elizabeth JoAnne)
Voluptuous Vixens III September 1999 (Covergirl: Robin Arcuri)
Voluptuous Vixens IV October 2000 (Covergirl: Sylvia Kelly)
Voluptuous Vixens September 2001 (Covergirl: Veronika Zemanová)
Voluptuous Vixens September 2002 (Covergirl: LaTasha Marzolla)
Voluptuous Vixens May 2003 (Covergirl: Jordan)
Voluptuous Vixens December 2003 (Covergirl: Kalani)
Voluptuous Vixens May 2004 (Covergirl: Mandy Lynn)
Voluptuous Vixens December 2004 (Covergirl: Tiffany Holliday)
Voluptuous Vixens August/September 2007 (Covergirl: Jema Stone)
Voluptuous Vixens December/January 2008 (Covergirl: Maria Molkanova)
Voluptuous Vixens February/March 2008 (Covergirl: Genevieve Michelle)
Voluptuous Vixens August/September 2008 (Covergirl: Stephanie Martin)
Voluptuous Vixens December/January 2009 (Covergirl: Kristine Sjulstok)
Voluptuous Vixens February/March 2009 (Covergirl: Anne-Krystel Goyer)
Voluptuous Vixens August/September 2009 (Covergirl: Amy Varela)
Voluptuous Vixens December/January 2010 (Covergirl: Julri Waters)
[edit] Vixens
Vixens April/May 2005 (Covergirl: Alley Baggett)
Vixens June/July 2005 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
Vixens August/September 2005 (Covergirl: Lisa Wells)
Vixens October/November 2005 (Covergirl: Angilina DeVille)
Vixens December/January 2006 (Covergirl: Louise Glover)
Vixens February/March 2006 (Covergirl: Kimberly Williams)
Vixens April/May 2006 (Covergirl: Jaime Hammer)
Vixens June/July 2006 (Covergirl: Maryse Ouellet)
Vixens August/September 2006 (Covergirl: Elizabeth JoAnne)
Vixens October/November 2006 (Covergirl: Lisa MacKay)
Vixens December/January 2007 (Covergirl: Iris-Jinger Santos)
Vixens February/March 2007 (Covergirl: Ashley Elizabeth)
[edit] Nudes
[edit] Nudes
Nudes October 1990 (Covergirl: Karen Foster)
Nudes December 1991 (Covergirl: Pamela Anderson)
Nudes December 1992 (Covergirl: Christy Thom)
Nudes December 1993 (Covergirl: Barbara Moore)
Nudes December 1994 (Covergirl: Jenny McCarthy)
Nudes December 1995 (Covergirl: Patty Breton)
Nudes November 1996 (Covergirl: Stacy Sanches)
Nudes December 1997 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Nudes December 1998 (Covergirl: Joy Behrman)
Nudes December 1999 (Covergirl: Sung Hi Lee)
Nudes December 2000 (Covergirl: Kim Hiott)
Nudes December 2001 (Covergirl: Arlene Lopez)
Nudes December 2002 (Covergirl: Carri Lee)
Nudes October 2003 (Covergirl: Iza Lukomska)
Nudes October 2004 (Covergirl: Nicole Bayard)
Nudes January 2006 (Covergirl: Amy Sue Cooper)
Nudes May/June 2006 (Covergirl: Brandie Moses)
Nudes November/December 2006 (Covergirl: Jennifer Hurt)
Nudes May/June 2007 (Covergirl: Bianca Deacy)
Nudes November/December 2007 (Covergirl: Anissa Holmes)
Nudes May/June 2008 (Covergirl: Bryleigh Rayne)
Nudes November/December 2008 (Covergirl: Michelle Moore)
Nudes May/June 2009 (Covergirl: Melissa Jean)
Nudes November/December 2009 (Covergirl: Samantha Harris)
[edit] World Wide Nudes
World Wide Nudes August 1996 (Covergirl: Teresa Mortagua)
[edit] Features
[edit] Barefoot Beauties
Barefoot Beauties 1999 (Covergirl: Mysti Sherwood)
Barefoot Beauties 2001 (Covergirl: Jesseca Turner)
Barefoot Beauties 2002 (Covergirl: Sandra Westgate)
Barefoot Beauties 2003 (Covergirl: Celeste Morgan)
[edit] Bathing Beauties
Bathing Beauties 1989 (Covergirl: Terri Lynn Doss)
Bathing Beauties 1990 (Covergirl: Ava Fabian)
Bathing Beauties 1991 (Covergirl: Rita Ravonne)
Bathing Beauties 1992 (Covergirl: Tonya Poole)
Bathing Beauties 1993 (Covergirl: Amy Weber)
Bathing Beauties 1994 (Covergirl: Rebecca Ferratti)
Bathing Beauties 1995 (Covergirl: Barbara Moore)
[edit] Big Boobs & Hot Buns
Big Boobs & Hot Buns November/December 2008 (Covergirls: Breann McGregor & Lana Tailor)
Big Boobs & Hot Buns November/December 2009 (Covergirls: Shira Jones & Destiny White)
[edit] Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 1985 (Covergirls: Penny Baker, Devin DeVasquez & Denise Schwartzlow)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 1990 (Covergirls: Brandi Brandt, Sandra Wild & Debi Nicolle Johnson)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 1993 (Covergirls: Suzi Simpson, Renee Tenison & Carol Ficatier)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 1997 (Covergirls: Anji Evans, Lisa Borghese & Tina Johnston)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 2002 (Covergirls: Amy Miller, Kelly Monaco & Heather Christensen)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads 2003 (Covergirls: Heather Duval, Erin Connor & Kelly Hargraves)
Blondes, Brunettes & Redheads June/July 2007 (Covergirl: Nichole Jackson)
[edit] Casting Calls
Casting Calls 2001 (Covergirl: Heidi Hawking)
Casting Calls 2002 (Covergirl: Vanessa Wilson)
[edit] Cover Girls
Cover Girls 1986 (Covergirl: Lillian Müller)
Cover Girls 1997 (Covergirls: Lola Corwin & Morena Corwin)
[edit] Exotic Beauties
Exotic Beauties 2002 (Covergirl: Lena Li)
Exotic Beauties 2003 (Covergirl: Hiromi Oshima)
Exotic Beauties 2004 (Covergirl: Lucia Tovar)
Exotic Beauties October/November 2007 (Covergirl: Nivia Nery)
[edit] Fantasies (For Men and Women)
Fantasies (For Men and Women) Winter 1991
Fantasies (For Men and Women) Spring 1991
[edit] Fresh Faces
Fresh Faces June/July 2008 (Covergirl: Hillary Fisher)
Fresh Faces November/December 2008 (Covergirl: Brittany Marie)
Fresh Faces June/July 2009 (Covergirl: Jennifer Lewis)
Fresh Faces November/December 2009 (Covergirl: Haley Sorenson)
[edit] Girlfriends/Girls with Girls
Girlfriends 1998 (Covergirls: Rachel Stevens & Brooke Richards)
Girlfriends 1999 (Covergirls: Milan Nalina & Baby Norman)
Girlfriends 2000 (Covergirls: Cathi O'Malley & Laurie Wallace)
Girlfriends 2001 (Covergirls: Roxanne Galla & Amy Miller)
Girlfriends 2002 (Covergirls: Harmony Guffey & Candice Michelle)
Girlfriends 2003 (Covergirls: Heather Christensen & Kathleen Reilly)
Girls with Girls 2004 (Covergirls: Nicole Lohe & Andrea Lowell)
Girls with Girls 2006 (Covergirls: Tailor James & Nadine Glenn)
Girls with Girls July/August 2007 (Covergirls: Elle Patille & Amy Lynn Grover)
Girls with Girls July/August 2008 (Covergirls: Brandie Moses & Breann McGregor)
Girls with Girls July/August 2009 (Covergirls: Venus DaMikka & Nicolette Nightingale)
[edit] Girls of Summer
Girls of Summer 1983 (Covergirls unknown)
Girls of Summer 1984 (Covergirls unknown)
Girls of Summer 1986 (Covergirl unknown)
Girls of Summer 1988 (Covergirl: Carmen Berg)
Girls of Summer 1989 (Covergirl: Shannon DeShay)
Girls of Summer 1990 (Covergirl: Carolyn Jones)
Girls of Summer 1991 (Covergirl: Erika Eleniak)
Girls of Summer 1992 (Covergirl: Michelle Anderson)
Girls of Summer 1993 (Covergirl: Tiffany Sloan)
Girls of Summer 1994 (Covergirl: Petra Verkaik)
Girls of Summer 1995 (Covergirl: Gaëlle Comparat)
Girls of Summer 1996 (Covergirls: Echo Johnson, Kimberly Donley & Casey Gray)
Girls of Summer 1997 (Covergirl: Shae Marks)
Girls of Summer 1998 (Covergirl: Laurie Langdon)
Girls of Summer 1999 (Covergirls: Aerica D'Amaro & Aubrie Lemon)
Girls of Summer 2000 (Covergirls: Marie-Claude Dubuc & Heather Spytek)
Girls of Summer 2001 (Covergirl: Maria Santos)
Girls of Summer 2002 (Covergirls: Kitty Figueroa, Madison Marie & Gabrielle Morlock)
Girls of Summer 2003 (Covergirls: Samantha Joseph & Lani Todd)
Girls of Summer 2004 (Covergirl: Kara Monaco)
[edit] Girls of Winter/Winter Girls
Girls of Winter 1985 (Covergirls unknown)
Girls of Winter 1988 (Covergirl: Sandy Greenberg)
Winter Girls 1996 (Covergirl: Danielle Wheeler)
Girls of Winter 1998 (Covergirls: Kelly Monaco & Stephanie Wood)
[edit] HardBodies
HardBodies 1997 (Covergirl: Christine Lydon)
HardBodies 1999 (Covergirl: Haven Gaston)
[edit] Hot Housewives
Hot Housewives September/October 2007 (Covergirl: Brittany Carmona)
Hot Housewives March/April 2008 (Covergirl: Trish Cleveland)
Hot Housewives September/October 2008 (Covergirl: Sara Stokes)
Hot Housewives March/April 2009 (Covergirl: Lisa Neeld)
Hot Housewives September/October 2009 (Covergirl: Jennifer Kennedy)
[edit] Hot Shots
Hot Shots 2004 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
Hot Shots 2005 (Covergirl: Nancy Erminia)
Hot Shots 2006 (Covergirl: Alley Baggett)
Hot Shots 2007 (Covergirl: Christi Shake)
Hot Shots 2008 (Covergirl: Cindy Margolis)
[edit] Natural Beauties
This series features "natural" models in a tacit acknowledgement that some models are unnatural (i.e. have breast implants and other cosmetic surgery).

Natural Beauties September 1998 (Covergirl: Rachel Jeán Marteen)
Natural Beauties May 1999 (Covergirl: Lisa Marie Scott)
Natural Beauties May 2000 (Covergirl: Heather Christensen)
Natural Beauties May 2001 (Covergirl: Nicole Whitehead)
Natural Beauties May/June 2002 (Covergirl: Lani Todd)
Natural Beauties March/April 2003 (Covergirl: Jenny James)
Natural Beauties February 2004 (Covergirl: Tara McKenzie)
Natural Beauties March/April 2006 (Covergirl: Erica Campbell)
Natural Beauties April/May 2007 (Covergirl: Brooke Barnes)
Natural Beauties April/May 2008 (Covergirl: Lana Tailor)
Natural Beauties October/November 2008 (Covergirl: Thea Coleman)
Natural Beauties April/May 2009 (Covergirl: Steffi Lee)
Natural Beauties October/November 2009 (Covergirl: Stephanie Jane)
[edit] Nude Celebrities/Sexy Celebrities
Nude Celebrities 1995 (Covergirl: Pamela Anderson)
Nude Celebrities 1997 (Covergirls: Pamela Anderson & Donna D'Errico)
Sexy Celebrities 2001 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Sexy Celebrities 2002 (Covergirl: Brande Roderick)
[edit] Playmate Search
Great Playmate Hunt 1989 (Covergirl: Fawna MacLaren)
Great Playmate Search 1994 (Covergirl: Anna-Marie Goddard)
Playmate 2000 Part 1 2000 (Covergirls: Katia Corriveau & April Renee)
Playmate 2000 Part 2 2000 (Covergirls: Rebekah Wisler & Mandy Kirtz)
Playmate Search 50 2004 (Covergirl: Roxanne Siordia)
[edit] Real Sex
Real Sex 1998 (Covergirl: Alley Baggett)
Real Sex 1999 (Covergirl: Rosie Ciavolino)
[edit] Sexy 100
Sexy 100 2003 (Covergirl: Victoria Silvstedt)
Sexy 100 2004 (Covergirl: Alley Baggett)
Sexy 100 2005 (Covergirl: Mandy Lynn)
Sexy 100 2006 (Covergirls: Kendra Wilkinson, Bridget Marquardt & Holly Madison)
Sexy 100 2007 (Covergirl: Cindy Margolis)
Sexy 100 May/June 2008 (Covergirl: Kim Kardashian)
Sexy 100 May/June 2009 (Covergirl: Rachelle Leah)
[edit] Sexy Girls Next Door
Sexy Girls Next Door 1998 (Covergirl: Brooke Richards)
Sexy Girls Next Door 1999 (Covergirl: Julia Brox)
Sexy Girls Next Door 2001 (Covergirl: Alina Rae)
Sexy Girls Next Door 2003 (Covergirl: Erica Campbell)
Sexy Girls Next Door 2004 (Covergirl: Jeanette Lopez)
Sexy Girls Next Door 2005 (Covergirl: Carin Ashley)
Sexy Girls Next Door 2006 (Covergirl: Misty Hendricks)
Sexy Girls Next Door November/December 2007 (Covergirl: Leticia Cline)
Sexy Girls Next Door March/April 2009 (Covergirl: Charlene Fry)
[edit] Sisters
Sisters 1986 (Covergirls: Gail Chin & Lonnie Chin)
Sisters 1992 (Covergirls: Shannon Tweed & Tracy Tweed)
[edit] Supermodels
Supermodels 1995 (Covergirl: Cindy Crawford)
Supermodels 1998 (Covergirls: Lisa Boyle & Sung Hi Lee)
[edit] The Year in Sex
The Year in Sex 1988 (Covergirl: Jessica Hahn)
The Year in Sex 1989 (Covergirl: Robin Givens)
[edit] Wet & Wild Women/Wet & Wild
Wet & Wild Women 1987 (Covergirl unknown)
Wet & Wild Women 1990 (Covergirl: Tawnni Cable)
Wet & Wild Women 1993 (Covergirl: Brittany York)
Wet & Wild 1996 (Covergirl: Tiffany Richardson)
Wet & Wild 1998 (Covergirl: Joy Behrman)
Wet & Wild 1999 (Covergirl: Victoria Zdrok)
Wet & Wild 2000 (Covergirl: Jennifer Rovero)
Wet & Wild 2001 (Covergirl: Zdenka Micka)
Wet & Wild 2003 (Covergirl: Dana Dicillo)
Wet & Wild 2004 (Covergirl: Christina Santiago)
Wet & Wild 2006 (Covergirl: Brittany Fuchs)
[edit] Women of the World/Girls of the World/Sexy Girls of the World
Women of the World 1987 (Covergirl: Ruth Guerri)
Girls of the World 1992 (Covergirl: Isabelle Fortea)
Girls of the World 1994 (Covergirl: Heidi Sorenson)
Sexy Girls of the World 2001 (Covergirl: Nohemi Rodriguez)
[edit] Working Women
Working Women 1984 (Covergirls unknown)
Working Women 1988 (Covergirl: Cynthia Kaye)
[edit] 'One-shots'

First Playboy Special Edition issue in 1983: Bunnies #3There is a variety of Special Editions that are only single issues.

Bunnies #3 1983 (Covergirl: Jennifer Babtist - first issue[1])
Women of Television 1984 (Covergirls unknown)
Playboy - The Parody 1984 (Covergirl: Bo Derek)
Newsmakers 1985 (Covergirls unknown)
Entertaining Women 1985 (Covergirls unknown)
Sporting Women 1986 (Covergirls unknown)
Country Girls 1987 (Covergirl: Kymberly Paige)
Holiday Girls 1987 (Covergirl: Laurie Carr)
Photography 1988 (Covergirls: Marianne Gravatte & Vanity)
Women on the Move 1988 (Covergirl: India Allen)
100 Beautiful Women 1988 (Covergirl: Jenilee Harrison)
Sex and Other Late-Night Laughs 1990 (Contains cartoons only)
Women 1991 (Covergirl: Lillian Müller)
Career Girls 1992 (Covergirl: Alexandra Hayes)
Beauty Queens 1994 (Covergirl: Jacqueline Meyer)
Hot Denim Daze May 1995 (Covergirls: Patricia Ford, Wendy Hamilton & Kerri Kendall)
Sexy Ladies 1995 (Covergirls: Roxanne Loupe, Lois Kaplan & Melissa Queen)
Blondes 1995 (Covergirls: Shae Marks & Chrissy Ranay)
Sexy Swimsuits February 1996 (Covergirl: Becky Delos Santos)
Lingerie Model Search 1997 (Covergirl: Nicole Dawniel)
Sexy Latin Ladies 1997 (Covergirl: Maria Checa)
Women of Color 1997 (Covergirls: Sophronia Williams, Lisa Ortega & Sung Hi Lee)
Playboy's 1998 Guide to Men's Clubs 1997 (Covergirl: Shari Lauren)
X-Girls November 1997 (Covergirl: Leah Darby)
Body Language 1998 (Covergirl: Jenny Cote)
Sex Stars of the Century 1999 (Covergirls: Pamela Anderson & Cindy Crawford)
Asian Beauties 2000 (Covergirl: Sung Hi Lee)
Sexy Girls in Sports September 2000 (Covergirl: Danelle Folta)
CyberGirls 2002 (Covergirl: Gina Patrone)
Sexy Girls 2004 (Covergirl: Erin Connor)
[edit] 'Personalities'
Pompeo Posar 1985 (see: Pompeo Posar)
Vanna White 1987 (Covergirl: Vanna White)
Kimberley Conrad Hefner 1989 (Covergirl: Kimberley Conrad Hefner)
Dian Parkinson 1993 (Covergirl: Dian Parkinson)
Anna Nicole Smith 1995 (Covergirl: Anna Nicole Smith)
Pam Anderson 1996 (Covergirl: Pamela Anderson)
Rena Mero (Wrestling Superstar Sable) 1999 (Covergirl: Rena Mero)
[edit] List of Playboy Supplements
[edit] The Playboy Cartoon Album
The Playboy Cartoon Album 1 1963 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 2 1965 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 3 1969 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 4 1971 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 5 1972 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 6 1973 (Contains cartoons only)
The Playboy Cartoon Album 7 1980 (Contains cartoons only)
[edit] The Best from Playboy
The Best from Playboy 1964 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1968 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1969 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1970 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1971 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1972 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1973 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy (First Printing) 1975 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy (Second Printing) 1975 (Covergirl unknown)
The Best from Playboy 1982 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
The Best from Playboy 1983 (Cover consists of 6 Playboy Magazine covers)
[edit] Playboy's Holiday Album
Playboy's Holiday Album 1970 (Covergirl: Gwen Wong)
Playboy's Holiday Album 1971 (Covergirl: Shay Knuth)
[edit] Playboy's Girls of the World
Playboy's Girls of the World 1971 (Covergirl: Pirkko Patanen)
Playboy's Girls of the World 1 1972 (Covergirl: Susie Bright)
[edit] Playboy Bunnies
Playboy Bunnies 1972 (Covergirl: Heather Van Every)
Playboy Bunnies #2 1979 (Covergirl: Betsy La Vielle)
[edit] The Girls of Playboy
The Girls of Playboy (First Printing) 1973 (Covergirl: Barbi Benton)
The Girls of Playboy (Second Printing) 1975 (Covergirl: Liv Lindeland)
The Girls of Playboy (Third Printing) 1978 (Covergirl: Claudia Jennings)
The Girls of Playboy 2 (First Printing) 1974 (Covergirl: Marilyn Cole)
The Girls of Playboy 2 (Second Printing) Unknown (Covergirl: Christine Maddox)
The Girls of Playboy 2 (Third Printing) 1978 (Covergirl: Miki Garcia)
The Girls of Playboy 3 (First Printing) 1978 (Covergirl: Daina House)
The Girls of Playboy 3 (Second Printing) Unknown (Covergirl: Daina House)
The Girls of Playboy 4 (First Printing) 1980 (Covergirl: Debra Jo Fondren)
The Girls of Playboy 4 (Second Printing) 1982 (Covergirl: Debra Jo Fondren)
The Girls of Playboy 5 1982 (Covergirl: Jeana Tomasino)
[edit] Eve Today
Eve Today (First Printing) 1974 (Covergirl: Vicki Peters)
Eve Today (Second Printing) 1974 (Covergirl: Liv Lindeland)
Eve Today Book Two 1975 (Covergirl: Donna Michelle)
[edit] Playboy's New Holiday Album
Playboy's New Holiday Album 1975 (Covergirl: Kristine Hanson)
Playboy's New Holiday Album 1981 (Covergirl: Debra Jo Fondren)
[edit] Ecstasy
Ecstasy (Book One: Women's Sexual Fantasies) 1976 (Covergirl unknown)
Ecstasy (Book Two: Men's Sexual Fantasies) 1976 (Covergirl unknown)
[edit] Sexy Ladies/More Sexy Ladies
Sexy Ladies 1977 (Covergirl unknown)
More Sexy Ladies 1978 (Covergirl unknown)
[edit] Fashion For Men
Fashion For Men Spring/Summer 1981 (Covergirl unknown)
Fashion For Men Fall/Winter 1981 (Covergirl: Karen Howard)
Fashion For Men Spring/Summer 1982 (Covergirl: Tina Turner)
Fashion For Men Fall/Winter 1982 (Covergirl: Raquel Welch)
Fashion For Men Spring 1983 (Covergirl: Christie Brinkley)
[edit] 'One-shots'
Pl*yb*y (Harvard Lampoon Parody) 1966 (Covergirl unknown)
Playboy's John Dempsey 1970 (See: John Dempsey; contains cartoons only)
The Sexual Revolution 1970 (Covergirl unknown)
The Youth Culture 1971 (Covergirl unknown)
Playboy's Phil Interlandi 1971 (See: Phil Interlandi; contains cartoons only)
Playboy's Little Annie Fanny 1972 (See: Little Annie Fanny; contains cartoons only)
Playboy's Alden Erikson 1972 (See: Alden Erikson; contains cartoons only)
Playboy's Vargas Girls 1972 (See: Alberto Vargas)
Mirror of Venus 1972 (Covergirl unknown)
The Sensuous Society 1973 (Covergirl unknown)
Women by 10 1973 (Covergirl unknown)
Playboy's Gahan Wilson 1973 (See: Gahan Wilson; contains cartoons only)
The Pocket Playboy #1 1973 (Covergirl: Paulette Lindberg)
Love Games 1975 (Covergirl unknown)
Deborah's Dreams (A Victorian Fantasy) 1976 (Covergirl unknown)
Love Scenes 1976 (Covergirl unknown)
Noelle (and the twelve nights of Christmas) 1976 (Covergirl: Noelle)
Playboy's Buck Brown 1981 (See: Buck Brown; contains cartoons only)
Leading Ladies 1981 (Covergirl: Bo Derek)
Dreams (Richard Fegley) 1982 (Covergirl unknown)
Playbore 1983 (Covergirl: Barbi Benton)
[edit] References
^ a b Playboy Special Editions FAQ
^ Playboy Mailing List@Yahoo! Groups: Staples are back (Warning: Age-Restricted Area)
^ Playboy Special Editions MySpace Blog
^ "Playboy back at Baylor". Waco Tribune. April 21, 2001. http://www.uh.edu/ednews/2006/waco/200604/20060421playboy.html. Retrieved 2007-01-26.
[edit] See also
List of Playboy NSS models
[edit] External links
Playboy Special Editions Official website Warning: Contains nudity
Playboy Special Editions Model Directory at Playboy.com
Women of Playboy Index
The Official Playboy On Campus MySpace Profile Information about events and becoming a representative

USA MOBILES

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When you travel to the USA, whether it is for pleasure, business or to study, you will want to make sure you stay connected and having a mobile phone with coverage in the USA is the best way to start. If you have a mobile phone already that is tri or quad band and is unlocked you can just purchase the service with our USA sim card, however if you do not have a compatible phone you can purchase one along with prepaid service here!

We curently offer 3 phone options:

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HISTORY OF ChristianitY

In Christianity, the Holy Spirit is the Spirit of God. In mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the Trinity. As part of the Godhead, the Holy Spirit is equal with God the Father and with God the Son.

The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed. There is also greater diversity in Christian theology of the Spirit (pneumatology) than there is in the theology of the Son (Christology) or of the Father.

Contents [hide]
1 Christian doctrine
2 Trinitarian views
2.1 Catholicism
2.2 Eastern Orthodoxy
2.3 Protestantism
2.4 Restoration Movement and Churches of Christ
2.5 Pentecostalism
3 Non-Trinitarian views
3.1 Latter Day Saints
3.2 Jehovah's Witnesses
3.3 Christadelphians
3.4 Unity Church
3.5 Oneness Pentecostalism
4 "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"
5 Fruit of the Spirit
6 Gifts of the Spirit
7 Symbols of the Holy Spirit
8 Depiction in art
9 Gender of the Holy Spirit
10 Non-Christian views
10.1 Bahá'í Faith
10.2 Islam
10.3 Judaism
10.4 Rastafarianism
11 See also
12 References
13 External links


[edit] Christian doctrine
Main article: Pneumatology
See also: Paraclete
Within mainstream Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three persons of the Trinity. As such he is personal and also fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with God the Father and God the Son.[1][2][3] He is different from the Father and the Son in that he proceeds from the Father (or from the Father and the Son) as described in the Nicene Creed.[2] His sacredness is reflected in the New Testament gospels (e.g., Mark 3:28-30, Matthew 12:30-32, and Luke 12:8-10), which proclaim blasphemy against the Holy Spirit as unforgivable.

The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include:

Conviction of sin. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.[4]
Bringing to conversion. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.[5] The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".[6]
Enabling the Christian life. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life.[5] The word Paraclete is specifically applied to the Holy Spirit in this regard.
Inspiration and interpretation of scripture. The Holy Spirit both inspires the writing of the scriptures and interprets them to the Christian and/or church.[7]
The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of Jesus Christ, enabling him to fulfil his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include:

Cause of his birth. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit.[8][9]
Anointing him at his baptism.[5]
Empowerment of his ministry. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit.[5]
Trinitarian and Non-Trinitarian Christians have different doctrinal views of the Holy Spirit.

[edit] Trinitarian views
Main article: Trinitarianism
[edit] Catholicism
According to Roman Catholic theology the primary work of the Holy Spirit is through the church. According to the Catechism: "The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit. [...] Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body."

[edit] Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally, and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Roman Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the Filioque ("and the Son") in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father and the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith (Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed). Oriental Orthodox usage coincide with Eastern Orthodox usage and teachings on the matter.

[edit] Protestantism
The majority of mainstream Protestantism hold similar views on the theology of the Holy Spirit as the Roman Catholic church, as described above.[1][10] The chief difference is the belief that the Holy Spirit interacts with the individual Christian instead of, or as well as, through the organization of the church.[10] There are significant variations in belief within the Protestant movement.

[edit] Restoration Movement and Churches of Christ
During the late 19th century, the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture.[11] This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell, who was "greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day."[11] He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation, but understood the Spirit to do this "in the same way any person moves another—by persuasion with words and ideas." This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone, who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian.[11] Since the early 20th century, many among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this "word-only" theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit.[12] As one student of the movement puts it, "[f]or better or worse, those who champion the so-called word-only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ. Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body, apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock."[11]

[edit] Pentecostalism

The Holy Spirit descending at Pentecost by Anthony van Dyck, circa 1618.See also: Pentecostalism
While the Holy Spirit is acknowledged as God in all mainstream denominations, he is given particular emphasis in Pentecostal churches. In those churches he is seen as the giver of natural and supernatural gifts, such as tongues and prophecy, to modern-day Christians.

The Christian movement called Pentecostalism derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in Jerusalem (see Acts 2). Pentecostals believe that when a believer is "baptized in the Holy Spirit", the gifts of the Spirit (also called the charismata) are activated in the recipient to edify the body of Christ, the church. Some of these gifts are listed in 1 Corinthians 12.

The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Much of Pentecostalism differentiates the "baptism with the Holy Spirit" from the salvific born again experience, considering it a usually distinct experience in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way, with the belief that the Christian can be more readily used to perform signs, miracles, and wonders for the sake of evangelism or for ministry within the church. There are also some Pentecostals who believe that Spirit baptism is a necessary element in salvation, not a "second blessing". These Pentecostals believe that in the baptism in the Holy Spirit, the power of the Spirit is released in their lives.

Many Pentecostals believe that the normative initial evidence of this infilling (baptism) of the Holy Spirit is the ability to speak in other tongues (glossolalia), and that tongues are one of several spiritual manifestations of the presence of the Holy Spirit in an individual believer's life.

[edit] Non-Trinitarian views
Main article: Nontrinitarianism
Non-trinitarian views about the Holy Spirit generally fall into one of two categories. Some groups believe that the Holy Spirit is a separate being from God the Father and God the Son, and is 'one' with them in some other sense than of being one substance; Latter Day Saint beliefs fall within this category. Others believe that the Holy Spirit refers to some aspect or action of God (i.e., Modalism); Jehovah's Witness, Christadelphian, Unity Church, and Oneness Pentecostalism beliefs fall within this category.

[edit] Latter Day Saints
In the Latter Day Saint movement, the Holy Ghost (usually synonymous with Holy Spirit.)[13] is considered the third distinct member of the Godhead (Father, Son and Holy Ghost). The Holy Ghost is considered to be a son of God the Father,[14] and to have a body of "spirit,"[15] which makes him unlike the Father and the Son who are said to have bodies "as tangible as man's."[16]

[edit] Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Holy Spirit is God's active force, and do not typically capitalize the term.[17] A Jehovah's Witness brochure quotes Alvan Lamson: "...the Father, Son, and... Holy Spirit [are] not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One... The very reverse is the fact."[18]

[edit] Christadelphians
Christadelphians believe that the phrase Holy Spirit refers to God's character or mind, depending on the context.[19]

[edit] Unity Church
The Unity Church interprets the religious terms Father, Son, and Holy Spirit metaphysically, as three aspects of mind action: mind, idea, and expression. They believe this is the process through which all manifestation takes place.[20]

[edit] Oneness Pentecostalism
Oneness Pentecostalism, and with other modalist groups, teach that the Holy Spirit is a mode of God, rather than a distinct individual, and that there is no distinction between God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.

[edit] "Holy Spirit" or "Holy Ghost"
The meaning of Holy Spirit and Holy Ghost are identical. Holy Ghost was the common name for the Holy Spirit in English prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the Book of Common Prayer, the Catholic Douay Rheims Bible and the King James Version (KJV), and is still widely used by English speakers whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the KJV. The term is still retained in the traditional-language rites of the Anglican Church. The original meaning of the English word ghost closely paralleled the words spirit or soul; only later did the former word come to acquire the specific sense of "disembodied spirit of the dead" and the associated pejorative connotations. [21]

In 1901 the American Standard Version of the Bible translated the name as Holy Spirit, as had the English Revised Version of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit.

[edit] Fruit of the Spirit
Main article: Fruit of the Holy Spirit
Christians believe the "Fruit of the Spirit" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in Galatians 5:22-23: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control."[22] The Roman Catholic Church adds to this list generosity, modesty, and chastity.[23]

[edit] Gifts of the Spirit
Main article: Spiritual gift
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.[5] They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, Charisma, from which the term charismatic derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, tongues) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint Ambrose wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of Holy Fear.[24]

It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists.

One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.[25] This is the view of the Catholic Church[3] and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the Montanists, practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the Pentecostal movement in the late nineteenth century.[25]

Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a Baptism of the Holy Spirit or Filling of the Holy Spirit which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the Baptism of the Holy Spirit is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.[25]

[edit] Symbols of the Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit is frequently referred to by metaphor and symbol, both doctrinally and biblically. Theologically speaking these symbols are a key to understanding of the Holy Spirit and his actions.[3][26]

Water - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism, such that in the manner that "by one Spirit [believers] were all baptized", so they are "made to drink of one Spirit". (1 Corinthians 12:13) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (John 19:34; 1 John 5:8) as its source and welling up in Christians to eternal life.[27][26]
Anointing - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit is referred to as his "anointing". (Cf. 1 John 2:20,27; 2 Corinthians 1:21) In some denominations anointing is practiced in Confirmation; ("chrismation" in the Eastern Churches). Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew, messiah) means the one "anointed" by God's Spirit.[26][27]
Fire - symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues "as of fire", the Holy Spirit rested on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost.[26][27]
Cloud and light - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and "overshadows" her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of transfiguration, the Spirit in the "cloud came and overshadowed" Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and "a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'" (Luke 9:34-35)[27]
The dove. When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him. (Matthew 3:16)[26][27]
Wind The Spirit is likened to the "wind that blows where it will" (John 3:8), and described as "a sound from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind" (Acts 2:2-4).[26]
[edit] Depiction in art
The Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove, based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus like a dove when he was baptized in the Jordan. In many paintings of the Annunciation, the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove, coming down towards Mary on beams of light, as the Archangel Gabriel announces Christ's coming to Mary.


Annunciation by Rubens, 1628
Baptism of Christ by Pietro Perugino, circa 1498
The Descent of the Holy Spirit in a 15th century illuminated manuscript. Musée Condé, Chantilly.

Stained glass in the Cathedral of St. Mary and St. John (Episcopal), Quezon City, Philippines
Scene by Filippo Lippi, 1459




A dove may also be seen at the ear of Saint Gregory the Great - as recorded by his secretary - or other church father authors, dictating their works to them.

The dove also parallels the one that brought the olive branch to Noah after the deluge (also a symbol of peace), and rabbinic traditions that doves above the water signify the presence of God.

The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the apostles at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.

[edit] Gender of the Holy Spirit
Main article: Gender of the Holy Spirit
See also: Gender of God in Christianity
There are some Christian groups who teach that the Holy Spirit is feminine, or has feminine aspects. Most are based on the genders of the verbs in the original Bible languages where the Holy Spirit is the subject. In Hebrew the word for spirit (ruach) is feminine.[28] In Greek the word (pneuma) is neuter,[28] and in Aramaic, the language which is generally considered to have been spoken by Jesus, the word is feminine. This is not thought by most linguists to have significance for the gender of the person given that name. There are biblical cases where the pronoun used for the Holy Spirit is masculine, in contradiction of the gender of the word for spirit (John 16:13).[28]

The Syriac language, which was in common use around 300AD, is derived from Aramaic. In documents produced in Syriac by the early Monophysite church (which later became the Syrian Orthodox Church) the feminine gender of the word for spirit gave rise to a theology in which the Holy Spirit was considered feminine.[29]

In 1977 a leader of the Branch Davidian church, Lois Roden, began to formally teach that the feminine Holy Spirit is the heavenly pattern of women, citing scholars and researchers from Jewish, Christian, and other sources.[citation needed]

There are some other independent Messianic Judaism groups with similar teachings,[30] and some scholars associated with more "mainstream" denominations, while not necessarily indicative of the denominations themselves, have written works explaining a feminine understanding of the third member of the Godhead.[31][32][33][34]

The Unity Church's co-founder Charles Fillmore considered the Holy Spirit a distinctly feminine aspect of God considering it to be "the love of Jehovah" and "love is always feminine".[35]

[edit] Non-Christian views
[edit] Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith has the concept of the Most Great Spirit, seen as the bounty of God.[36] It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God, which are known as Manifestations of God, and include among others Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh.[37] In Bahá'í belief the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the Holy Maiden to Bahá'u'lláh.[38] The Bahá'í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is a pure reflection of God's attributes.[39]

[edit] Islam
Main article: Holy Spirit (Islam)
Holy Spirit in Islam is an agent of divine action or communication commonly identified with the angel Gabriel (ar: Jibreel) or Ruhul Qudus but also alternatively with the created spirit from God by which he enlivened Adam, made Mary pregnant with Jesus, and inspired the angels and the prophets. The belief in Trinity is explicitly forbidden by the Qur'an and called a grave sin. The same applies to any idea of the duality of God (Allah).[40][41]

[edit] Judaism
In Judaism, the idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical.[citation needed] Nonetheless, the term Ruach HaKodesh (Holy Spirit) is found frequently in Talmudic and Midrashic literature. In some cases it signifies prophetic inspiration, while in others it is used as a hypostatization or a metonym for God.[42] The Rabbinic “Holy Spirit,” has a certain degree of personification, but it remains, “a quality belonging to God, one of his attributes” and not, as in Christianity, representative of “any metaphysical divisions in the Godhead.”[43]

See also shekhinah.

[edit] Rastafarianism
As a movement that developed out of Christianity, Rastafari has its own unique interpretation of both the Holy Trinity and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is Haile Selassie who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, "Hola") Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see 'I and I'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true church is the human body, and that it is this church (or "structure") that contains the Holy Spirit.

[edit] See also
Christianity portal
Spirituality portal
Baptism with the Holy Spirit
God in Christianity
Pneumatology
Slain in the Spirit
[edit] References
^ a b Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. p. 103.
^ a b T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright (1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine. (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. pp. 54-56 and 128-131.
^ a b c "Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit". http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm.
^ The Holy Spirit and His Gifts. J. Oswald Sanders. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.
^ a b c d e Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265-270.
^ Though the term "born again" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [1]
^ T C Hammond; Revised and edited by David F Wright (1968). In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine. (sixth ed.). Inter-Varsity Press. p. 134.
^ Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 267-268.
^ Karl Barth (1949). Dogmatics in Outline. New York Philosophical Library. p. 95.
^ a b David Watson (1973). One in the Spirit. Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 39-64.
^ a b c d Douglas A. Foster, "Waves of the Spirit Against a Rational Rock: The Impact of the Pentecosat, Charismatic and Third Wave Movements on American Churches of Christ," Restoration Quarterly, 45:1, 2003)
^ See for example, Harvey Floyd, Is the Holy Spirit for me?: A search for the meaning of the Spirit in today's church, 20th Century Christian, 1981, ISBN 978-0890984468, 128 pages
^ Wilson, Jerry A. (1992), "Holy Spirit", in Ludlow, Daniel H., Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Mcmillan, p. 651, ISBN 0-02-904040-X, http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,3768 "The Holy Spirit is a term often used to refer to the Holy Ghost. In such cases the Holy Spirit is a personage."
^ McConkie, Joseph Fielding (1992), "Holy Ghost", in Ludlow, Daniel H., Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Mcmillan, p. 649, ISBN 0-02-904040-X, http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,3766 "[T]he Holy Ghost is a spirit man, a spirit son of God the Father."
^ D&C 131:7-8 ("There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.")
^ D&C 130:22.
^ "Is the Holy Spirit a Person?". Awake!: 14-15. July 2006. http://www.watchtower.org/e/200607a/article_01.htm. "In the Bible, God’s Holy Spirit is identified as God’s power in action. Hence, an accurate translation of the Bible’s Hebrew text refers to God’s spirit as “God’s active force.”".
^ "Is It Clearly a Bible Teaching?", Should You Believe in the Trinity?, ©1989 Watch Tower, p. 7, Reproduced here.
^ Broughton, James H.; Peter J Southgate. The Trinity: True or False?. UK: The Dawn Book Supply. http://www.biblelight.org/trin/trinind.htm.
^ http://www.unitypaloalto.org/beliefs/twenty_questions.html
^ Norfolk schools told Holy Ghost 'too spooky' | Schools special reports | EducationGuardian.co.uk.
^ Stephen F. Winward (1981). Fruit of the Spirit. Inter-Varsity Press.
^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Section 1832.
^ De Sacramentis 3.8.
^ a b c Millard J. Erickson (1992). Introducing Christian Doctrine.. Baker Book House. pp. 265-275.
^ a b c d e f David Watson (1973). One in the Spirit. Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 20-25.
^ a b c d e Catechism of the Catholic Church.
^ a b c "Catholic Exchange". http://catholicexchange.com/2006/06/24/83561/. Retrieved 2009-05-13.
^ http://www.theology.edu/journal/volume3/spirit.htm
^ Joy In the World[2]; The Torah and Testimony Revealed [3].
^ “Martin Luther, the originator of the Protestant movement, was not ashamed to think of the Holy Spirit in feminine terms.
^ Church Fathers Believed the Holy Spirit was Feminine.
^ For example, R.P. Nettlehorst, professor at the Quartz Hill School of Theology (associated with the Southern Baptist Convention) has written on the subject. [4][5][6].
^ Evan Randolph, associated with the Episcopal Church, has likewise written on the subject. [7][8].
^ Charles Fillmore. Jesus Christ Heals. pp. 182-183.
^ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1981). "The Holy Spirit". Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0877431906. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-25.html.
^ Taherzadeh, Adib (1976). The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1: Baghdad 1853-63. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 10. ISBN 0853982708. http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha%27i/Others/ROB/V1/p007-011Ch01.html?back=%3C.
^ Abdo, Lil (1994). "Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles". Bahá'í Studies Review 4 (1). http://bahai-library.com/bsr/bsr04/43_abdo_femalespirit.htm.
^ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1981). "The Trinity". Some Answered Questions. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 113–115. ISBN 0877431906. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAQ/saq-27.html.
^ Griffith, Sidney H. Holy Spirit, Encyclopaedia of the Quran.
^ Patrick Hughes, Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, p. 605.
^ Alan Unterman and Rivka Horowitz,Ruah ha-Kodesh, Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition, Jerusalem: Judaica Multimedia/Keter, 1997).
^ Joseph Abelson,The Immanence of God in Rabbinical Literature (London:Macmillan and Co., 1912).
[edit] External links
Holy Spirit: Scripture Reference Guide
Actualizing the Holy Spirit
a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does
Lois Roden's studies on the Feminine aspect of the Godhead
How To Live By The Power Of The Holy Spirit (Protestant Christian)
Eastons Bible Dictionary:Holy Ghost
Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit
Catholic Encyclopedia: Holy Ghost
The Holy Spirit: The Feminine Face of God
The Holy Spirit: Who is He?

muslim history on mobiles for all muslims

This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Islamic civilization. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
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HISTORY OF MUSLIMS

Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic faith as a religion and as a social institution. It is wrong to say that the history of Islam began in Arabia with Muslim Prophet Muhammad's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century. According to Islamic Faith and the Holy Text, Islam began with Adam and Eve. They are considered the First Apostles of God. Later, even Abraham, Moses, Jesus, they all taught the same faith, albeit in different regions or at different points of time.

Like most world religions, the historical evolution of Islam had a significant impact on the political, economic, and military and beyond its primary geographic areas. Islam's historical development has affected both inside and outside the Islamic world. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah, on the part of Islam's practitioners down the centuries. Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or the ummah, and this principle has influenced the behavior of a number of players in history. The history of Islam is closely tied to the political, economic, and military.

A century after the death of Muhammad, an Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, the Fatimids, the Mughals, the Safavids, and Ottomans were among the largest and most powerful in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and especially, the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

Later, in the eighteenth century and nineteenth century, many Islamic regions fell under the tutelage of European imperial powers. After the First World War, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European protectorates. Since 1924, there has been no major widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been last claimed by the Ottomans).

Although affected by various ideologies such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early twenty-first century. The fast-growing Western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the twenty-first century.[1]

Contents [hide]
1 Origins
2 Early Caliphate
2.1 Timeline
2.2 Al-Rashidun - "The Rightly-Guided Caliphs"
2.3 Abbasids - "Islamic Golden Age"
2.4 Regional powers
2.5 The Fatimid Empire
2.6 The Iberian peninsula under the Umayyads and the Berber dynasties
3 The Crusades
4 The Mamluks
5 Islam in Africa
5.1 Islam in Maghreb
5.2 Islam in East Africa
5.3 Islam in West Africa
6 Islam in Asia
6.1 Indian Subcontinent
6.2 China
6.3 Southeast Asia
7 Mongol invasions
8 Three Muslim empires of the Early Modern Era
8.1 Mughal Empire
8.2 Safavid Empire
8.3 Ottoman Empire
9 Wahhabism
10 The 20th century
10.1 Demise of the Ottoman Empire
10.2 Partition of India
10.3 Arab-Israeli conflict
10.4 Oil wealth
10.5 Two Iranian revolutions
11 The 21st century
11.1 Islam in Turkey
12 Dynasties of Muslim Rulers
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References and further reading
16 External links


[edit] Origins
Main articles: Muhammad in Mecca, Wahy, Origin and development of the Qur'an, Hijra (Islam), Muhammad in Medina, Conquest of Mecca, Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca, and Succession to Muhammad
According to the traditionalist view, the Qur'an began with revelations on Muhammad's divine revelations in AD 610. The verses of the Quran were written down and memorized during his life. Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in the year AD 630. In 628 the Meccan tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina had signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace, which was broken when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of Bakr, attacked the tribe of Khuza'ah, who were allies of the Muslims. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of Rashidun Caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.

Andrey Korotayev and his colleagues suggest to view the origins of Islam against the background of the 6th century AD Arabian socioecological crisis whose model is specified by Korotayev and his colleagues through the study of climatological, seismological, volcanological and epidemiological history of the period. They find that most sociopolitical systems of the Arabs reacted to the socioecological crisis by getting rid of the rigid supratribal political structures (kingdoms and chiefdoms) which started posing a real threat to their very survival. The decades of fighting which led to the destruction of the most of the Arabian kingdoms and chiefdoms (reflected in Ayyam al-`Arab tradition) led to the elaboration of some definite "antiroyal" freedom-loving tribal ethos. At the beginning of the 7th century a tribe which would recognize themselves as subjects of some terrestrial supratribal political authority, a "king", risked to lose its honour. However, this seems not to be applicable to the authority of another type, the "celestial" one. At the meantime the early 7th century evidences the merging of the Arabian tradition of prophecy and the Arabian Monotheist "Rahmanist" tradition which produced "the Arabian prophetic movement". The Monotheist "Rahmanist" prophets appear to have represented a supratribal authority just of the type many Arab tribes were looking for at this very time, which seems to explain to a certain extent those prophets' political success (including the extreme political success of Muhammad) (Andrey Korotayev, Vladimir Klimenko, and Dmitry Proussakov. Origins of Islam: Political-Anthropological and Environmental Context. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 53/3–4 (1999): 243–276). v

[edit] Early Caliphate
Main articles: Caliphate, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Age
After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr Siddique, Umar, Uthman and Ali. These first Caliphs are popularly known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly-guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. After the Rashidun, a series of Caliphates were established. Each caliphate developed its own unique laws based on the sharia. There were at times competing claims to the Sunni caliphate, and the Imams of Ismaili Shi'a Islam, descended from Ali and Muhammad through his daughter Hazrat Fatimah, set up their own caliphate which ruled the Fatimid Empire.

[edit] Timeline


[edit] Al-Rashidun - "The Rightly-Guided Caliphs"
Main articles: Rashidun and Muslim conquests
Following Muhammad's death, a series of four Caliphs lead the Islamic Empire during this period. Starting with Abu Bakr, Omar, Uthman, and ending with Ali.

[edit] Abbasids - "Islamic Golden Age"
Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age
The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[2] The new ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured mainly by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.[3][4] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age."[5] This was also the case for commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution), and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution), which prospered, especially under the rule of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813), and their immediate successors.[6]


Abbasid Caliphate and contemporary states and empires in 820.Baghdad was made the new capital of the caliphate (moved from the previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[6] It was at this time however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and we witness the uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was short lived, as they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a new capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo). Similar was the case in Persia, where the Turkic Ghaznavids managed to snatch power from the Abbasids.[7][8] Whatever temporal power of the Abbasids remained had eventually been consumed by the Seljuq Turks (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia), in 1055.[6]

During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful proselytism.[2] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.[2]

During the Abbasid reign, Baghdad became one of the greatest cultural centers of the world. The Abbasids were said to be descendents of Abbas the uncle of Muhammad claiming that they were the 'messiah' or saviours of the people under the Ummayad rule. Abbasid caliphs Harun al-Rashid and Al-Mamun were great patrons of arts and sciences, and enabled these domains to flourish. Islamic philosophy also developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established and built. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. The greatest achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[9]

[edit] Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught within a three-way rivalry of Arabs, Persians and the immigrant Turks.[10] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[11] The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The Emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of rival caliphates. Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the Buwayhid emirs. During this time, great advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.

[edit] The Fatimid Empire

Al-Hakim Mosque, Cairo, EgyptThe Fatimids had their origins in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 byˤAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammadby way of his daughter Fātima as-Zahra and her husband ˤAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the firstShīˤa Imām, hence the name al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".

Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries ofMorocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his newly-built capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 900s, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a new capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[12] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed over into Sicily and southernItaly.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine,Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz[citation needed]. Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended even to non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews, who occupied high levels in government based on ability.[citation needed] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, most notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.

The Fatimid palace was two parts. it used to be in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street[1].

[edit] The Iberian peninsula under the Umayyads and the Berber dynasties

The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs.Main articles: Al-Andalus, Caliphate of Córdoba, and Taifa
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair quickly crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. There are some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and one, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). and two reasonably large armies may have been gay in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[13]

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power in the Middle East, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).[14] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[15] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[16] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[17]

The rule of the Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[18] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of mostly independent states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Party kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms will then weaken the power of the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas such as that of Seville will consequently be forced to enter into alliances with the Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[19]

[edit] The Crusades
Main article: The Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century C.E. the Christian kingdoms of Spain had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the perceived holy wars in Spain and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli and Jerusalem. The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled many holy sites of Islam. Saladin, however, restored unity within the Umma by defeating the Fatimids, and was then able to put an end to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187 C.E. Other crusades were launched with at least the nominal intent to recapture the holy city and other holy lands, but hardly more was ever accomplished than the errant looting and occupation of Christian Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire severely weakened and ripe for later conquest. However, the crusaders did manage to weaken Muslim territories preventing them from further expansion into Christendom.

[edit] The Mamluks
In 1250 C.E., the short-lived Ayyubid dynasty (established by Saladin) was overthrown by slave regiments, and a new dynasty—the Mamluks—was born. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, soon expanded into Palestine, expelled the remaining Crusader states and repelled the Mongol attempt to invade Syria (see Battle of Ain Jalut). Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest period of time between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250-1517).[20]

[edit] Islam in Africa
Main article: Islam in Africa
The first continent outside of Arabia to have an Islamic history was Africa, particularly Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea).


The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba founded in 670, is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, Kairouan, Tunisia[edit] Islam in Maghreb
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history, with a number being of historical importance.

The Idrisid dynasty were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.

The Almoravid dynasty a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a great part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.

The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians," were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all northern Africa as far as Egypt, together withAl-Andalus.

[edit] Islam in East Africa
Islam in the East Africa can be dated back to the founding of the religion and the beginning with the hijra; in 615, when a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Abyssinia (an act known as the First migration to Abyssinia), which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king named al-Najashi (Negus, King of Abyssinia). Moreover, Islamic tradition states that the first muezzin Bilal al-Habeshi, one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia (Habasha).[21]

There were Islamic governments in Tanzania. The people of Zayd were allegedly the first Muslims to immigrate to East Africa.[citation needed] Islam came to east Africa mainly through trade routes.[citation needed] The African peoples that lived along these routes became converts due to the close contact they had with Arab traders in areas like Tabora, from which they affected the manners of Muslims, this leading to eventual conversion neither with encouragement nor discouragement by the Muslim Arabs. In pre-colonial East Africa, the structure of Islamic authority was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). Their base was mainly in Zanzibar. These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in East Africa at this time; especially before territorial boundaries were established. This is because the majority of Muslims lived within the sphere of influence of the Sultanate in Zanzibar, the chief Qadi there being recognized for having the final religious authority.[22]

[edit] Islam in West Africa
Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government, one grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, dan Fodio retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.

This section requires expansion.

[edit] Islam in Asia
Main article: Islam in Asia
[edit] Indian Subcontinent
Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
See also: Islam in India, Islam in Pakistan
Islamic rule came to the region in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, (Pakistan). Muslim conquests were expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late twelfth century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak, conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.

In the fourteenth century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.

[edit] China
China was not a Muslim country, but, it does contain substantial Muslim community.

Further information: History of Islam in China
[edit] Southeast Asia
See also: The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)
Islam reached the islands of Southeast Asia through Indian Muslim traders from Gujarat near the end of the 13th century.[8] Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[23] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince in the Malay peninsula. Through trade and commerce, Islam spread to Borneo and Java, Indonesia. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines.[citation needed]

As Islam spread, three main Muslim political powers emerged. Aceh, the most important Muslim power, was based firmly in Northern Sumatra. It controlled much of the area between Southeast Asia and India. The Sultunate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak was the third power, appearing in Java, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[24] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[8]

Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Brunei established themselves as centers of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei's sultanate remains intact even to this day.[8]

[edit] Mongol invasions
See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde
The wave of Mongol invasions, which had initially commenced in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, marked a violent end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol Empire had spread rapidly throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237. With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made the head of the Mongol Army assigned the task of subduing Baghdad. This was achieved at the Battle of Baghdad (1258), which saw the Abbasids overrun by the superior Mongol army. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and subsequently destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell shortly afterwards, in 1260. Any prospective conquest of Egypt was temporarily delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.[8]

With Mongol conquest in the east, the Ayyubid dynasty ruling over Egypt had been replaced by a man who was born prince struggled as a slave named Mamluks also known as Lion of Ain Jaloot in 1250. This had been done through the marriage between Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub, with the Mamluk general Aybak. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of Aybak, and the succession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and decisively routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[8] With this, the Mamluks were also able to conquer the last of the crusader territories.[citation needed]

[edit] Three Muslim empires of the Early Modern Era
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires were created: the aforementioned Ottoman Empire in much of the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughul Empire in South Asia. These new imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder, and more efficient administration.[25] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined significantly, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.

[edit] Mughal Empire

Humayun's Tomb inDelhi, India.Main article: Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, with its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later, and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought a degree of instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, through which a string of defeats had been dealt to Humayun, significantly weakened the Mughals. Just a year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas include Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[8][26]

The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries, before it declined in the early 18th century, which led to India being divided into smaller kingdoms and princely states. The Mughal dynasty was eventually dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[8][26] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, particularly in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Iran were very active throughout the region. Consequently, more than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[26]

[edit] Safavid Empire
Main article: Safavids

Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli Jabbador, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the two Georgian figures with their names at the top left.The Safavids (Persian: صفویان) were an Iranian dynasty from Iranian Azarbaijan that ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established Twelver Shi'a Islam as Iran's official religion and united its provinces under a single Iranian sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity.


Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were originally Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, an Iranian local dignitary from Iran's north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving Iran a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.

In 1524, Tahmasp acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts in the region. Carpet making became a major industry, gaining new importance in Iran's cities. But the finest of all artistic revivals was the commissioning of the Shahnama. The Shahnama was meant to glorify the reign of the Shah through artistic means. The two-volume copy contained 258 large paintings to illustrate the works of Firdawsi, a Persian poet. The Shah also prohibited the drinking of wine, forbade the use of hashish and ordered the removal of gambling casinos, taverns and brothels.

Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, also managed to increase the glory of the empire. Abbas restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas also moved the empire's capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with the Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2), thus dwarfing Piazza San Marco and St. Peter's Square.[27]

[edit] Ottoman Empire
Main article: Ottoman Empire
The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century, especially after the Mongol invasion of Anatolia.[28] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I led it to a series of consecutive victories over the Byzantine Empire.[citation needed] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I.[29] Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were firmly established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a swiftly growing empire.[30]

Further growth was brought to a sudden halt, as Bayezid I had been captured by Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, upon which a turbulent period known as the Ottoman Interregnum ensued. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of the territories recently conquered by the Ottomans regained independent status, potential ruin for the Ottoman Empire became imminent. However, the empire quickly recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself the new Ottoman sultan in 1413.[8]

At around this time the naval fleet of the Ottomans developed considerably, such that they were able to challenge Venice, traditionally a naval power. Focus was also directed towards reconquering the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans felt strong enough to lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A decisive factor in this siege was the use of firearms and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans, against which the Byzantines were unable to compete. The Byzantine fortress finally succumbed to the Ottoman invasion in 1453, 54 days into the siege. Mehmed II, entering the city victorious, renamed it Istanbul. With its capital conceded to the Ottomans, the rest of the Byzantine Empire quickly disintegrated.[8] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend heavily upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[31]


The Suleiman Mosque (Süleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sultan Suleiman the Magnificent by the great Ottoman architect Sinan in 1557In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, upon the defeat of the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I quickly sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had previously fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, with their empire rivalling the Ottomans'. Suleiman I also advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) signified the height of the Ottoman Empire, after which it fell into a relative decline with the rapid industrialization of the European empires. [8][32][[Image:Humanyu.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Humayun's Tomb in they were hit badly because there faith were not stronger like our prophets had it.

[edit] Wahhabism
Main article: Wahhabism
During the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703 – 1792) led a religious movement (Wahhabism) in Najd (central Arabia) that sought to purify Islam. Wahhab wanted to return Islam to what he thought were its original principles as taught by the as-salaf as-saliheen (the earliest converts to Islam) and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by bid‘ah (religious innovation) and Shirk (polytheism). He allied himself with the House of Saud, which eventually triumphed over the Rashidis to control Central Arabia, and led several revolts against the Ottoman empire. Initial success (the conquest of Mecca and Medina) was followed by ignominious defeat, then a resurgence which culminated in the creation of Saudi Arabia.

[edit] The 20th century
The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change.

[edit] Demise of the Ottoman Empire
Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined due to internal conflict. Their decision to back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war, which led directly to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli; Mustapha Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." It was fundamentally Ataturk who is to credit for successfully renegotiating the treaty of Sevres (1920) which ended their involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was officialy recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Ataturk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He effectively transformed Turkish culture to reflect European style laws and clothing, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Roman alphabet, separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated woman- even giving them the right to vote roughly contemporary with the same transformation in western law for the first time. [33] Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory located outside of Asia Minor were parceled out as European protectorates. Despite Allied promises to subject peoples of the former Ottoman Empire during the war for future independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the central Turkish powers in Asia Minor; to their dismay, old-fashioned European imperialism was put in to practice through this system of "protectorates" which was a mere smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the new ideas in the region: the British and the French. Such struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T.E. Lawrence- later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[34] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Montenegro, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, other Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black sea.[35]

Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria, and Turkey organized their governments with definable policies and sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.

Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the new government brought out new religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism which found its way into the Saudi royal family.

[edit] Partition of India
Main article: Partition of India
The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the two sovereign states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.

In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic Country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-WWII state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh.

Today, Pakistan is the second largest Islamic country in the world following Indonesia. Pakistan is presently the only nuclear power of the Muslim world.

[edit] Arab-Israeli conflict
Main article: Arab-Israeli conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab nations and the state of Israel (see related Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite initially involving the Arab states, animosity has developed between other Muslim nations and Israel. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Arab or Muslim world,[36][37] others oppose this view.[38] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world.

[edit] Oil wealth
Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud re-organized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's new ministries included Communication (1953) Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (by 29 years his younger) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.

In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud simply forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea seems to have died in committee, so to speak. It would be revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.

Meantime, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was ineffectual in terms of increasing revenue for member nations. But it would have its day. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a final showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. It was Saud who blinked, abdicating and leaving for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.

The 1967 war had other effects. It effectively closed the Suez canal, it may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar al-Gaddafi in power, and it led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a conveniently short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.

In 1970, it was Occidental Petroleum which constituted the first crack in the wall of oil company solidarity in dealing with the oil producing nations; specifically, in this case, with the demands for price increases from the new Qaddafi government.

In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, got underway just as oil company executives were heading to Vienna, site of a planned meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands anyway, and the war strengthened the unity of their new demands.

The Arab defeats in the Six Day and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency re-supply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states," those that bordered Israel, in their struggle.

The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.

[edit] Two Iranian revolutions
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and restriction of the power of Shah (king). The first constitution of Iran was approved. But after the final victory of revolutionaries over Shah, the modernist and conservative blocks began to fight with each other. Then World War I took place and all of the combatants invaded Iran and weakened the government and threatened the independence of Iran. The system of constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution was weakened in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.

In 1979 the Iranian Revolution (also called "The Islamic Revolution" ) transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, an Iranian referendum established the Islamic republic as a new government, and a new constitution was approved, electing Ruhollah Khomeini Supreme Leader of Iran. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought with each other, and ultimately Islamics captured power. At the same time, the U.S., USSR, and most of the Arab governments of the Middle East feared that their dominance in the region was challenged by the new Islamic ideology, so they encouraged and supported Saddam Hussein to invade Iran, which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war.

[edit] The 21st century
[[File:Islam by country.svg|250px|thumb|right|Islam in the world.(Green: Sunni, Red: Shia]]

[edit] Islam in Turkey
Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey
Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatürk's Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied support from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was gradually omitted from the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey; the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official religion nor promotes any and it actively monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were a series of peaceful mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the Turkish secularist state [39]

[edit] Dynasties of Muslim Rulers
There are Muslim Dynasties which can be found in list of dynasties of Muslim Rulers

[edit] See also
Averroes
Avicenna
Al-Andalus
History of the Balkans
Muslim conquests
Mughal Empire
Islamic Golden Age
Islam by country - a list
List of wars in the Islamic world
List of the Muslim Empires
Muslim World
Timeline of Islamic history
Disputes over Islamic historical dates
[edit] Notes
^ http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925100226&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout Milestones of Islamic History
^ a b c L. Gardet; J. Jomier. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Lewis (1993), p.84
^ Holt (1977a), p.105
^ Holt (1977b), pp.661-663
^ a b c "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
^ "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600". University of Calagary. http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
^ Nasr (2003), p.121
^ Nasr (2003), p. 121-122
^ Lapidus (1988), p.129
^ Beeson, Irene (September/October 1969). "Cairo, a Millennial". Saudi Aramco World: 24, 26–30. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196905/cairo-a.millennial.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
^ Collins (2004), 139.
^ Hourani, pg.41
^ Glubb, John Bagot (1966). The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Prentice-Hall. pp. 128.
^ Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. pp. 102. ISBN 9-0041-4771-3.
^ Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press. pp. 599. ISBN 0-5214-1410-5.
^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. pp. 133. ISBN 0-8014-9264-5.
^ Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 103. ISBN 0-8122-15699.
^ Hourani, pg.85
^ Curtis, Edward E. (2002). Islam in Black America: identity, liberation, and difference in African-American Islamic thought. SUNY Press. pp. 119. ISBN 0-7914-5370-7.
^ Nimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
^ Nasr (2003), p. 143
^ Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 226-230
^ Armstrong (2000) p. 116
^ a b c Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 211-219
^ Bloom and Blair (2000), p. 199-204
^ Holt (1977a), p.263
^ Koprulu (1992), p.109
^ Koprulu (1992), p.111
^ Armstrong (2000), p.116
^ www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com
^ (Citation: Bentley, Jerry H. and Ziegler, Herbert F. "Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past." New York: McGraw Hill, 2006, pp. 961 and 969.
^ Citation: Bentley, Jerry H. and Ziegler, Herbert F. "Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past." New York: McGraw Hill, 2006, pp. 971-972.
^ Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, vol.4, p.1402
^ Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal. Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003
^ Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (Israel Science and Technology)
^ Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century
^ "Secular rally targets Turkish PM", BBC News, April 14, 2007.
[edit] References and further reading
Books and journals

Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0679640400.
Bloom and Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999.
Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1057-9.
Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364.
Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178.
Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191.
Lapidus, Ira M. (1988). A History of Islamic societes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22552-3.
Lewis, B. (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.
Rahman, F. (1982). Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70284-7.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam:Religion, History and Civilization. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-050714-4.
Sonn, Tamara (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-0900-9.
Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Mulsim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INUPress. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21591-2.
Encyclopedias

P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101.
The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1593392369.
[edit] External links
BBC Islamic History Special
Chronological history of Islam and Muslims up to current time
Islam: 662AD - Present
Internet Islamic History Sourcebook
A history of Islam in America
Ethiopian Muslims History The Haven of the First Hijra (Migration): an African nation is the Muslims’ first refuge
Brief history of Islam
Chronological history of Islam
A history of Islamic culture
Islamic Civilization
Islamic Historical pictures - Gallery/صور